ILO is a specialized agency of the United Nations
ILO-en-strap
International Labour Conference

86th Session
Geneva, June 1998

Report I

Report of the Director-General:
Activities of the ILO, 1996-97

3

Equality and social protection

The protection of working people against work-related hazards and contingencies such as injury, illness and old age lies at the heart of the ILO's mandate. This chapter describes the activities undertaken during the biennium to improve the occupational safety and health situation in member States, including the ILO's contribution, particularly in the field of chemical safety, to the follow-up to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The chapter also covers ILO action to improve working conditions and to strengthen and extend social security coverage.

Equality of opportunity and treatment is a fundamental right of all workers. It is integral to all democratic societies and is crucial to combating poverty. Equality of opportunity and treatment is of particular relevance to the situation of women workers, as well as to that of several specific categories of workers, including migrant workers, indigenous and tribal peoples, and persons with disabilities. This chapter groups together many of the activities carried out to promote equality for women workers, particularly as part of the follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995. It also describes the action taken to combat child labour through the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (ILO-IPEC).

Equality for women in employment

Although the principle of equality of opportunity and treatment between men and women workers is widely accepted in most countries in the world, and there are indications that progress is being made in its implementation in practice, deep-rooted inequalities still exist. Global women's economic activity rates have climbed from 54 per cent in 1950 to 67per cent in 1996 and are expected to reach almost 70 per cent in 2010. The higher educational levels attained by women, coupled with falling fertility rates, particularly in the industrialized countries, have played an important role in contributing to these changes. Moreover, there is also a marked trend, once again particularly in industrialized countries, for women to spend more of their productive years in the labour force, with shorter periods away from work to give birth and care for children. ILO statistics also show that, in the majority of member States, wage differentials between men and women are gradually narrowing.

 

Figure 2 .

Women's activity rates for the age group 20-54 years in 1950, 1970, 1990 and 2010 (world, more developed and less developed regions)


The first action plans in the context of the International Programme on More and Better Jobs for Women were completed in Estonia , Pakistan and the United Republic of Tanzania .

Yet, despite this steady but slow progress, inequalities persist on a global basis. Women still account for only around 40 per cent of the world's workforce. Depending on their country of residence, they earn between 50 and 80 per cent of average male wages. They are much more likely than men to work in part-time and temporary jobs. Moreover, so-called "women's jobs" are often assigned a lower value in terms of skill requirements and remuneration. Recent ILO research shows that around half of the world's workers are in sex-stereotyped occupations, in which one sex accounts for at least 80 per cent of the workforce. The research also found that there are over seven times as many male- as female-dominated non-agricultural occupations.(1)

Against this background, the objective of ILO action is greater equality of opportunity and treatment between men and women in the world of work. The overall strategy adopted by the ILO in this respect is to ensure that gender issues and equality concerns are integrated throughout its programme of activities and means of action.

A major focus of these activities during the biennium was the ILO's follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995. A paper outlining ILO action to give effect to the Declaration and Platform for Action adopted at the Beijing Conference was submitted to the Governing Body in March 1996.(2) An important initiative in the follow-up to the Beijing Conference was the launching of an International Programme on More and Better Jobs for Women. Two action programmes were also undertaken on Economic reform and structural change: Promoting women's employment and participation in social funds and Labour inspection and equality of rights for women.

The basic principles of equality for women workers are set out in two of the ILO's seven fundamental Conventions: the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100), and the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111). Conventions Nos. 100 and 111 are among the most highly ratified of all ILO Conventions, with 135 and 129 ratifications, respectively, by the end of the biennium. The technical support provided to member States to improve observance of these Conventions included assistance to the Islamic Republic of Iran for the application of Convention No. 111 and collaboration in a series of seminars in Brazil for the design and implementation of a new system to handle complaints regarding discrimination. Assistance was also provided to South Africa for the drafting of new employment equity legislation.

Developments in the employment patterns of women have been accompanied by profound changes in workplace practices and rising expectations regarding the rights of women during their child-bearing years. The issue of maternity protection has raised concerns, which are sometimes controversial, with regard to protection of employment, equality and non-discrimination, and the health protection of mothers and children. In response to these concerns, the Governing Body has placed the revision of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952 (No. 103), and its accompanying Recommendation (No. 95) on the agenda of the 87th Session of the Conference in 1999. The wide interest of member States in this subject is illustrated by the response to the ILO's request for information on national law and practice, which elicited replies from 104 member States.(3)

As a specific contribution to following up the Beijing Conference, an International Programme on More and Better Jobs for Women was developed and launched.(4) The programme is designed to act as a focus for the efforts of the ILO and its partners to reinforce the long-standing priority of promoting full, productive and remunerative employment in conditions of equality of opportunity and treatment. Starting in a small number of countries and areas, namely Burkina Faso, Estonia, Mexico, Pakistan, the United Republic of Tanzania and the West Bank and Gaza, assistance was provided for the development of action plans and the establishment of institutional structures and arrangements for their implementation. The action plans in all the above countries and areas will be completed early in 1998 and submitted to donors for financing. In each case, the action plans focus on: institutional capacity-building, including the strengthening of representative bodies, the legal framework and information on the labour market; employment promotion activities for targeted categories of women; and the compilation and dissemination of information. The goal is to demonstrate in practical ways that it is feasible to achieve both more and better jobs for women by providing an opportunity for the replication of successful ILO activities on a broader scale.

The ILO's follow-up to the Beijing Conference included technical cooperation activities focused on gender training and the dissemination of information on women workers' rights. The objective of one project was the sensitization of ILO staff and constituents to gender issues and the strengthening of their capacity to carry out gender analysis and planning in their work. Training courses were organized for ILO staff from headquarters and the field with a view to mainstreaming gender issues throughout the ILO's work. Gender training activities were then organized at the national level inaround 30 countries. In many of the countries concerned, it was the first time that the tripartite constituents had met to discuss the issue of gender equality in employment and work. For the countries of the common market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR) in Latin America, a subregional training course for officials and the social partners, which was attended by equal numbers of men and women participants, was followed by the setting up of national task forces on gender equality. Each task force organized a national gender training seminar and formulated a work plan. A network of persons trained in gender issues was set up and plans were developed for subregional activities in 1998.

Recent gender initiatives in the countries covered by the interregional project on the dissemination of information on women workers' rights have included:

An interregional project on the dissemination of information on women workers' rights was also carried out in China, Egypt, El Salvador, Hungary, India, Mali, Suriname, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe. In each participating country, a tripartite national steering committee was set up, which acted as an important venue for social dialogue on work-related gender issues. Information materials were produced on the national legal framework respecting gender equality and the situation of women workers in the country concerned. Training was provided to middle-level officials and staff of governments, employers' and workers' organizations and women's NGOs on the organization of awareness-raising activities and the provision of gender training. As a result of these activities, a core group of trainers and resource persons on women workers' rights was formed towards the end of the biennium in each of the countries and provided with training materials adapted to the national situation. The training provided to these groups of trainers concentrated on building their capacity to organize training activities for their colleagues in government services, employers' and workers' organizations and NGOs. At the end of the biennium, several of these groups had started planning activities for 1998 in their own and other countries. For example, the trainers and resource persons in Hungary planned a workshop for counterparts in Ukraine to be held early in 1998.

A number of research activities were undertaken and studies published during the biennium to shed further light on work-related gender issues. These included a study on the economic and social basis of prostitution in South-East Asia.(5) An article was also published in the International Labour Review on sexual harassment, which documented recent trends in judicial decisions on this issue. Increased awareness of this problem has led to the adoption of legislation in several countries since the early 1990s, with some 36 States now having specific legislation on the subject.(6) A study was published on the experiences of women with disabilities who have successfully coped with their difficulties in the labour market in developing countries.(7) The ILO provided technical inputs and sponsored the participation of a number of women with disabilities at the International Leadership Forum for Women with Disabilities, held in Washington, DC, in June 1997. At the Forum, over 600 disabled women leaders gave a warm welcome to ILO interventions on subjects ranging from gender training and small enterprise development to the employment of persons with disabilities and critical issues for women in the world of work.

The conclusions adopted by the participants at the Tripartite Meeting on Breaking through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management recommended several strategies to promote women in management, including:

The participants also emphasized the importance of employers' and workers' organizations appointing women to top positions in their own structures and the significant role of national tripartite commissions, where they exist, in promoting equal opportunities for women and men.

In December 1997, the ILO held a Tripartite Meeting on Breaking through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management. The Meeting and the report submitted to it, which were both widely reviewed by the world's press, noted the progress made by women in closing the gap with men in managerial and professional jobs, but emphasized that they still rarely break through the "glass ceiling" separating them from top-level positions.(8) The Meeting called on the ILO to fully integrate, or mainstream, gender issues into its active partnership policy and to organize another tripartite meeting to produce a manual of best practices on the promotion of women in management.

Promoting women's participation in social funds

There is little awareness of the different ways in which economic reform and structural adjustment programmes affect men and women. Moreover, little attention has been paid to the gender dimension of the principal compensatory programmes included in structural adjustment packages, namely the social funds that have been established in over 30 countries in recent years. It was to address these shortcomings that activities were undertaken to promote awareness of the gender perspective in economic reform and structural adjustment programmes. An action programme was also carried out with the objective of promoting women's employment and their participation in social funds.

Priority was given in these activities to promoting national tripartite dialogue on the gender-differentiated impact of structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. Assistance was also provided with the formulation of national action programmes to promote the employment of women in the new socio-economic context. National tripartite workshops on the impact of structural adjustment policies on women workers were held in 1997 in the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe, while national tripartite networks were set up in India and Sri Lanka. The tripartite networks and meetings served as national fora to discuss the gender-differentiated impact of structural adjustment programmes and to formulate recommendations for concrete action to promote gender equality in employment promotion measures. The tripartite networks in India and Sri Lanka commissioned studies on how economic reform packages have affected women's employment and conditions of work in various economic sectors. They encouraged further debate by organizing thematic workshops and, in the case of the Indian network, publishing a newsletter. The networks also established databases with the respective national statistical offices to monitor the longer-term impact of economic reforms on women workers.

Under the impetus of the action programme, greater attention was paid to gender-related aspects of social funds in:

The action programme on Economic reform and structural change: Promoting women's employment and participation in social funds was designed to respond to two important issues raised by the Beijing Conference: combating the feminization of poverty; and integrating a gender perspective into the debate and action on macro-economic reforms. Data were collected and research carried out in Bolivia, Egypt, Honduras, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru and Zambia.(9) The case-studies conducted in the above countries acted as a means of initiating national dialogue and raising awareness of the need to improve the performance of existing social funds in terms of their gender dimension. The cooperation of the institutions responsible for the social funds and the discussion of the findings of this work with the key actors paved the way for the adoption of concrete action. The findings of the action programme were reviewed at a Technical Brainstorming Workshop, held in September-October 1997, and will be published in 1998.

The implementation of the action programme coincided with a number of regional and international meetings organized to review ten years of operation of the new generation of social funds. These events provided a context for closer collaboration between the World Bank and the ILO, in the process of carrying out the case-studies and the Technical Brainstorming Workshop referred to above, as well as in the International Workshop on Social Funds organized by the World Bank in May 1997. In the Workshop, the ILO drew attention to two neglected dimensions of social funds, namely: investments in targeted and decentralized employment generation schemes; and the limited outreach of social funds to women and the absence of a gender-sensitive policy framework. The latter was adopted by the Workshop as one of the four priority areas for action in relation to social funds. The ILO and the World Bank agreed to collaborate on the development of joint guidelines for the design of social funds and to undertake joint evaluations of their performance. The ILO has also received requests for advice, for example from Uzbekistan, on the integration of a gender perspective in social funds at the design stage.

Labour administration and equality of rights for women

The development, implementation and supervision of policies and measures to protect workers, including women workers and their basic rights, from part of the core mission of labour administrations. An action programme was implemented with the goal of making available to national labour administrations a set of recommendations on policy instruments and practical measures to ensure equality of rights for women at the workplace. Studies were undertaken to analyse the situation as regards equality for women workers in Chile, China, France, Ghana and Romania. The studies examined the differences and similarities between the labour administration structures in the various countries and the role in promoting equality played by key actors, including policy-makers and administrations, employers' and workers' organizations, NGOs and other actors in civil society. They noted the far-reaching effects of the world conferences organized by the United Nations on women's issues, including the Beijing Conference, in encouraging the establishment of structures and plans to promote equality at the national level. They also assessed the results of specific measures that have been adopted to promote equal opportunities between men and women workers.

The findings were used to prepare a draft methodological guide for labour administrations, which was reviewed by a meeting of specialists held in December 1997. The guide emphasizes the important role of labour administrations in collecting and analysing data on women's employment and in the implementation of equality laws. It also points to the need for coordination within and outside labour administrations, and between the various ministries concerned, for the design and implementation of action to promote equality of opportunity and treatment. In some countries, labour administrations are called upon to play a leading role in promoting equality, as in the case of Chile, where a specialized tripartite commission has formulated an equal opportunities plan in collaboration with the Ministry of Labour. In other cases, the lead is taken by structures outside the labour administration, such as the National Council for Women and Development of Ghana. A consolidated document based on the case-studies and the conclusions reached by the experts will be published early in 1998.(10)

Elimination of child labour

The elimination of child labour, particularly in its most extreme and exploitative forms, is one of the ILO's priority areas of action and has rapidly become the focus of international attention over recent years. A series of international conferences were successful in further raising awareness of the problem during the biennium. The ILO provided technical support to the Amsterdam Child Labour Conference in February 1997, the preparatory regional consultations in Brasilia, Lahore and Pretoria, and the International Conference on Child Labour held in Oslo in October 1997.

ILO-IPEC adopts a phased and multi-sectoral strategy in each participating country , consisting of the following steps:

Activities to address the issues involved in child labour continued to be concentrated around the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (ILO-IPEC), which has expanded rapidly since it was first launched in 1992. An action programme was also carried out to synthesize the lessons learned in combating child labour with a view to facilitating their replication by constituents. Financed by donors from 18 countries, ILO-IPEC is operational in some 40 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Arab States. Of these, 29 countries have underlined their commitment to combating child labour by signing Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with ILO-IPEC. Over 1,000 action and mini-programmes have been launched at the national level over the past five years. A synthesis report of the work of ILO-IPEC was produced towards the end of the biennium.(11)

The objective of ILO-IPEC is to work towards the progressive elimination of child labour by strengthening national capacities to address the problem and by contributing to a worldwide movement to combat child labour. Priority target groups are children in bonded labour, children in hazardous working conditions and occupations, and children who are particularly vulnerable, including working children below the age of 12 and working girls. The starting-point for ILO-IPEC action is the political will and commitment of individual governments to address child labour, in cooperation with employers' and workers' organizations, other NGOs and other partners, such as universities and the media. The concept of sustainability is built into this action from the outset through emphasis on in-country "ownership".

The following are examples in ILO-IPEC participating countries of significant progress made in mobilizing a broad social alliance and developing national policies and programmes of action:

At the international level, ILO-IPEC has helped to put child labour high on the world developmental agenda, while at the national level the political commitment and broad social alliance mobilized in most participating countries have resulted in greater interest and action. Many countries have defined their national priorities with regard to child labour and are implementing national programmes of action. Some countries have started investing significant financial and human resources to address the root causes of child labour and implement direct action and advocacy programmes. In these cases, the resources invested are far greater than those available to ILO-IPEC. New participating countries are moving from awareness-raising and sensitization into comprehensive programmes to change the lives of working children.

The action programmes supported by ILO-IPEC in participating countries are increasingly focusing on the most intolerable forms of child labour. Some two-thirds of these programmes are directed towards children engaged in hazardous work and working conditions, with 20 per cent aimed at combating forced labour. By economic sector, the action programmes divide fairly equally between the services sector, manufacturing and agriculture. In terms of types of intervention, there has been a significant shift from action directly targeting children in the early 1990s, towards a broader alliance between direct action (32 per cent of action programmes), awareness-raising (30 per cent), institutional and policy development (21 per cent) and programme development, research and evaluation (17 per cent). The action programmes carried out in collaboration with employers' and workers' organizations are described in Chapter 1, while information is provided in Chapter 5 on some of the action programmes carried out in each region.

Action at the national level was reinforced by activities at the regional and subregional levels. These included a programme of action on child labour in commercial agriculture in English-speaking African countries(12) and a study on child labour in manufacturing in South-East Asia.(13) Another programme was launched in eight Asian countries to combat the trafficking of children and their exploitation in prostitution and other intolerable forms of child labour. During the first phase of the programme, action-oriented research was carried out to improve understanding of the problem, identify responses, develop a strategy for action and design programmes, which will be carried out during the second phase of the programme, for the prevention of trafficking in children and the rehabilitation of the child victims of this practice. Technical assistance was also provided for the development of policies and programmes by regional bodies, including:

The proposed objectives of new standards on extreme forms of child labour , which will be discussed by the Conference for the first time in 1998, are the immediate elimination of the following intolerable practices worldwide:

International standards and guidance on child labour

The Minimum Age Convention (No.138) and Recommendation (No.146), 1973, provide the essential guidelines for policy at the national and international levels. ILO-IPEC has served as an operational arm of the ILO to assist in the formulation of national policies which are in line with these standards. ILO-IPEC promotes the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and takes into account in the formulation of its activities the Programme of action for the elimination of the exploitation of child labour adopted by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

In response to calls from member States, the ILO has taken the lead in issuing a global call for priority action on intolerable forms of child labour with the publication of its report Child labour: Targeting the intolerable.(14) The Conference agenda for 1998 includes the first discussion of new international labour standards on this subject, in the form of a proposed Convention and Recommendation, with a view to their adoption in 1999. The new standards are intended to complement and reinforce existing ILO Conventions. The most important of these are Convention No. 138, which sets the minimum age for admission to employment in all economic sectors, and the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), which is applicable to certain brutal forms of child labour, such as debt bondage, prostitution, slavery and slavery-like practices.

Various types of guidance materials were developed during the biennium to facilitate the integration into national policies and programmes of the lessons learned from ILO action on child labour in recent years. The ILO-IPEC interregional project on the mobilization of teachers, educators and their organizations resulted in the preparation of a resource kit and a synthesis report on child labour and education.(15) An action programme entitled Manual on action planning for the progressive elimination of child labour was also carried out to draw together the useful information and guidance acquired through ILO experience in this field.(16) The manual is intended to strengthen the capacities of governments, employers' and workers'organizations, NGOs and other partners to design a phased comprehensive national child labour programme. The activities carried out to assist in the compilation of reliable data on child labour are described in Chapter 2.

Since the programme was launched in 1992, a number of independent evaluations of ILO-IPEC activities have been carried out. However, beginning in 1997, a more systematic approach was adopted with the implementation of seven country reviews to assess the progress made by countries in combating child labour. The reviews, covering Brazil, Indonesia, Kenya, Philippines, the United Republic of Tanzania, Thailand and Turkey, were carried out by independent national research and evaluation teams and were being finalized at the end of the biennium. The evaluations have generally been positive and have confirmed that the ILO-IPEC strategy provides a credible and workable approach to the problem of child labour. However, they have also attested to the difficulty of assessing the quantitative impact of the programme. Although there is a temptation to use the number of children withdrawn from work situations as an indicator of its achievements, this may not necessarily be the appropriate approach. Prevention has turned out to be the most cost-effective response to the problem. Success can therefore be measured less in terms of numbers of children withdrawn from work than in the development of the capacity of national mechanisms and processes to deal effectively with the problem of child labour in a sustainable manner. At the level of the community and society, these qualitative impacts include:

For the children themselves, the benefits consist of their removal from hazardous working conditions, a reduction in working hours, the provision of more and better education, better job prospects, more personal discipline, more rest and recreation, better communication skills and concentration, better health, more self-confidence and aspirations for the future.

Migrant workers

The globalization of the world's economies is increasing the complexities and problems involved in the management of growing movements of labour across national borders. The effectiveness of national policies on migrant workers has been progressively eroded by unauthorized migration, rising xenophobia in the North, anxieties about emigration pressures in less developed regions and the growing commercialization of migration processes. Arrangements for the management of migration which have proven effective in the past, such as the conclusion of bilateral agreements, no longer cover much of the current migration. Indeed, a large share of contemporary migration is organized by profit-oriented commercial agents and takes place under clandestine conditions in order to evade the growing restrictions on the legal entry and employment of foreign workers.

The objective of ILO action relating to migration is the design and implementation by constituents of policies and measures which provide effective protection to migrant workers, combat discrimination and improve the management of migrant flows, particularly in terms of reducing irregularities and integrating established migrants into their host societies. The activities carried out in pursuance of this objective included policy analysis and advice, training and research into migration issues. In particular, a tripartite meeting of experts was held in April 1997 (see box) to provide guidance on future national and international action in the field of migration, especially in relation to two increasingly important issues which are not adequately covered by existing ILO standards, namely the protection of workers engaged under temporary migration schemes; and the protection of workers recruited by private agents for employment in another country. The meeting considered a report prepared by the ILO on the situation of these vulnerable categories of migrants.( 17)
 

The Tripartite Meeting of Experts on Future ILO Activities in the Field of Migration , held in April 1997, recommended that:

  • in the case of migrants engaged in time-bound activities (seasonal workers, project-tied workers, special-purpose workers, cross-border service providers, students and trainees), their tied employment should be strictly limited in time, the workers concerned should not suffer a lack of social security protection on account of the temporary nature of their employment, employers should be responsible for arranging adequate housing and trainees should benefit from the same wages and conditions of employment as national workers when they carry out an ordinary activity;
  • to protect migrant workers recruited by private agents , sending and receiving countries should consider the conclusion of bilateral labour agreements, employment services should play a greater role in their recruitment and placement, and adequate sanctions should be imposed for recruitment abuses and malpractices;
  • appropriate legislation and implementation machinery should be adopted for the granting of recruitment licenses;
  • States should cooperate more closely for the control of illegal recruitment and trafficking of migrant workers; and
  • as a new ILO means of action, there should be a procedure for carrying out studies in the territory of a State under the jurisdiction of which widespread and persistent exploitative practices are alleged to be occurring; the governments concerned would be informed of the findings with a view to developing remedies and solutions.

The guidelines of the Meeting of Experts were approved by the Governing Body in November 1997 and the ILO is preparing to launch the new procedure referred to above.

Various types of assistance were provided to constituents during the biennium to strengthen their capacity to deal with migration issues, analyse the situation, formulate appropriate policies, develop the relevant legislation and procedures, and set up programmes benefiting migrant workers. Training seminars were organized for senior officials in Belarus, Georgia and Kyrgyzstan on best practice in the management of emigration and immigration, the functions of foreign employment administrations and the role played by private agents in recruitment and placement.

The ILO also helped the Ministry of Labour of Kenya organize a national workshop on private recruitment. Analytical work included a study of rising pressures for emigration over the past decade and future prospects in the Maghreb region.(18) Case studies were carried out to assess the factors contributing to emigration pressures in four large Asian countries, namely China, Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam.(19) Assistance was also provided to national administrations, workers' organizations and NGOs for the development of services to assist women migrant workers in vulnerable occupations. With the collaboration of the ILO, the All Pakistan Federation of Trade Unions is developing means through which trade unions can play a bigger role in protecting migrant workers against recruitment abuses.

ILO assistance contributed to the formulation and adoption of measures and programmes relating to migrant workers in several countries, including:

Policy development in the field of migrant workers continued to be supported by the publication of the results of research and analytical activities. A book was published on the role that can be played by the governments of labour-sending countries in protecting emigrant workers and dealing with the effects of labour migration on the domestic economy.(20) A paper was also published on the temporary migration of service providers, including managers, professionals, technical workers and employees of international contractors, for example in the construction industry.(21) However, the main focus of research activities was on combating discrimination in labour-receiving countries. Studies were completed on eight western European countries, Canada and the United States.(22) These show that discrimination in the world of work against migrant workers and second-generation immigrants is widespread and persistent, and that much of the legislation aimed at preventing such discrimination is of only limited value. The findings are being disseminated through national seminars with a view to formulating recommendations on where and how improvements can be made. These will be set out in a draft manual on achieving equality for migrant workers, which will be reviewed by an interregional seminar in 1998.

Central and Eastern European countries have experienced great difficulties in dealing with the steady increase in the numbers of unauthorized migrant workers since the lifting of the restrictions on freedom of movement which existed in many cases up to 1989. To help the countries concerned take stock of the situation and identify the available policy options, the ILO initiated the "Informal Network on Foreign Labour in Central and Eastern Europe" in 1995. The Informal Network met annually during the biennium, with the meetings in Budapest in 1996 and Bratislava in 1997 being attended by representatives of 11 and 13 countries respectively. National workshops were also organized in a number of countries to help analyse the situation in the country concerned.

The Informal Network has led to better cooperation between the countries in the region on migration issues, an improved understanding by the responsible officials of what is, in many cases, a relatively new problem for them, and the development of greater capacity for the design and implementation of the appropriate policies and measures.

The ILO's work in this field has brought it recognition as one of the lead agencies in combating discrimination against migrant and ethnic minority workers. The ILO participated in many international meetings on the subject, as well as working closely with the Council of Europe, the European Union, the European social partners and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Moreover, in the follow up to the International Conference on Population and Development, the ILO has been appointed coordinator of a technical symposium on international migration, to be held in 1998.

Indigenous and tribal peoples

The Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No.169), and the earlier Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No.107), are the only two international Conventions covering this disadvantaged and vulnerable category of workers. Following ratifications by Denmark and Guatemala in 1996, Convention No. 169 has now been ratified by ten member States, while Convention No. 107 (which was revised by Convention No.169) remains in force for a further 21 countries.

The objective of ILO action in this area is the adoption by member States of policies and programmes to reduce poverty among indigenous and tribal peoples, increase their access to employment opportunities, improve their terms of employment and strengthen their bargaining and organizational capabilities. Information was disseminated to increase awareness of the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and policy advice was provided to national authorities on indigenous matters. Capacity-building activities were carried out to strengthen organizations of indigenous and tribal peoples and networking was encouraged with other social actors. The activities undertaken to promote employment for indigenous and tribal peoples through the development of cooperatives and self-help organizations are described in Chapter 2.

Substantial progress was made during the biennium in the legal and policy framework respecting indigenous and tribal peoples in:

Action to strengthen organizations of indigenous and tribal peoples focused on a small number of countries, including Bolivia, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Peru and the Philippines. In Guatemala, following the signature of the final peace agreement, which contains components on indigenous peoples, a nationwide training programme was undertaken for grass-roots indigenous organizations on the content and implications of the agreement and Convention No. 169. Training was also provided for the staff of the Ombudsman's Office of Guatemala. In Bolivia, in-service training was organized for indigenous legal officers on the current legislation respecting land, territories and resource use. At the request of the Inter-Ministerial Committee for Highland Peoples Development in the North-East of Cambodia, the ILO commenced capacity-building activities for indigenous organizations and government officials and provided policy advice for the integration of the principles set out in Convention No. 169 into the national draft policy on indigenous peoples. Research was also carried out on the socio-economic profile and legal protection of 63 indigenous groups inhabiting the Peruvian Amazon and was presented to a national meeting of representatives of indigenous organizations and public officials held in March 1997.(23) The conclusions of the meeting will be used to formulate recommendations for a large-scale programme on local sustainable development which will take into account the needs of the critically poor and of communities displaced by political violence.

In the Philippines, group discussions were organized to bring together government agencies and state-controlled energy and mining companies. The discussions resulted in firm commitments to amend the companies' procedures with regard to community-based consultations and compensation and rehabilitation schemes. Technical guidance was also provided upon request to a number of private and parastatal oil and mining companies which requested information on measures to minimize the adverse social impact of their operations on indigenous communities and the design of adequate compensation and rehabilitation plans. In support of this work, the experiences of North American indigenous communities in negotiating at various levels with the public administration and private companies were documented in fields such as fishing, energy, wildlife conservation and logging.(24) A guide was also prepared on the scope and implications of Convention No. 169.(25) In Costa Rica, a radio programme on Convention No. 169 was developed in collaboration with indigenous organizations and was broadcast in indigenous languages. Similar activities are being planned in other countries.

Many of the ILO's activities in support of indigenous and tribal peoples are carried out in close collaboration with other United Nations agencies. In addition to its participation in the United Nations task force covering the peace process in Guatemala, the ILO worked in close cooperation with UNDP's national indigenous programme in Bolivia and its highland peoples programme in Cambodia. Regular inter-agency meetings are held to coordinate action by United Nations agencies and donors for indigenous and tribal peoples. The meetings are organized annually by the ILO and the United Nations Centre for Human Rights.

Persons with disabilities

An estimated 600 million people, or 10 per cent of the world's population, are affected by physical or mental disabilities. A disproportionately high number of persons with disabilities who have the capacity to work are either unemployed or constrained to accept precarious or substandard employment conditions. In many cases, these workers are unable to compete effectively with other workers because they lack the opportunities to develop their skills and competence. It is against this background that many member States are reviewing the policies and measures that they have adopted with a view to achieving a better balance between protection of persons with disabilities and respect for the principle of equality of opportunity and treatment.

In March 1997, a White Paper was published in Namibia setting out a national policy on disability with the objective of achieving full social integration of disabled people in society. The principal features of the policy include:

The objective of ILO activities in this area is greater respect for the rights of persons with disabilities and the development of a supportive environment for their increased social and economic integration. The assistance provided to constituents to promote equal opportunities for persons with disabilities in training and employment included technical support for the design and implementation of policies, supplemented by research and the exchange of information. A total of 18 countries requested advice from the Office on draft policy and related documents during the biennium. The measures taken by member States, often with ILO assistance, to protect the rights of persons with disabilities and promote their access to training and employment opportunities included the development or revision of national labour legislation in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Moldova and Togo, as well as the formulation of employment equity legislation in Namibia and South Africa. National disability policies were formulated in Barbados, Costa Rica, Ghana, Namibia and South Africa, while the establishment or revision of national quota/levy systems was considered in China and Poland.

Guidance for constituents on the legislative measures that have been adopted concerning persons with disabilities was provided in the form of a publication examining how disability issues are addressed in national labour legislation.(26) The principal guidance in this field is contained in the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention (No. 159) and Recommendation (No. 168), 1983. By the end of the biennium, Convention No. 159 had been ratified by 59 member States. The situation as regards the implementation of these standards was examined in a General Survey of the reports supplied under article 19 of the ILO Constitution prepared by the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations at the end of 1997.(27) The Committee of Experts noted a general trend in national practice for the use of vocational guidance, training, placement and employment services for the vocational rehabilitation of persons with disabilities, as advocated in Convention No. 159. It also observed that in a growing number of countries, particularly where persons with disabilities have formed their own organizations to gain recognition and influence the relevant decisions, there has been significant progress in their social and occupational integration and reintegration. It pointed out that implementing the provisions of the Convention does not necessarily require vast resources, but above all the determination to attain the appropriate objectives and gradually extend the systems set up for that purpose. Finally, it expressed the hope that the Convention would receive a large number of ratifications in the near future.

Technical assistance was also provided in many member States to strengthen the capacity of governments and the social partners to provide training and employment opportunities for disabled youth and adults, and particularly women with disabilities. Policy and training support was provided for the integration of trainees with disabilities into ordinary vocational training institutions in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Uruguay, as well as in six Caribbean countries. Support was afforded to government projects to establish community-based rehabilitation programmes in Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Yemen and in Gaza and the West Bank. Demonstration and training projects continued to be implemented in Mongolia, Namibia and Pakistan, as well as in the countries of Central America, in support of national community-based efforts to increase the access of persons with disabilities to training and job opportunities, especially in rural areas. Assistance was also provided for programmes in Chile to enhance their economic integration.

Two measures that have been adopted in many countries, and are under consideration in others, to promote the employment of persons with disabilities are national rehabilitation funds and related quota/levy systems. Synopses of these measures were drafted and an international guide was prepared.(28) This activity culminated in the holding of an International Conference on Policies and Management of National Rehabilitation Funds in Warsaw in February-March 1997. At the conference, representatives of governments, employers' and workers' organizations, organizations of persons with disabilities and national rehabilitation funds in countries operating funds and quota systems (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Netherlands and Poland) shared information with representatives of countries considering their introduction (Belarus, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania, Russian Federation and Ukraine). The participants discussed the impact and complexities of various combinations of incentives, legal requirements and levy systems and their applicability with regard to different economic sectors and types of disability.

In response to requests for assistance and guidance from constituents, research was conducted to identify policies, strategies and measures which encourage workers with disabilities to retain their jobs and return to work. A study was initiated on the situation in Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, examining employment and labour market policies, benefit and compensation programmes, employment support and rehabilitation services, services for the adaptation of work and workplaces, and enterprise strategies for handling disability. Further information is being collected by national informants and is being compiled in an issues paper, which will be discussed at an international meeting to be hosted by the Government of the United States in May 1998. The issues paper will identify policy measures which motivate persons with disabilities to return to work and will examine the cost-effectiveness of the various measures. It will also analyse practical obstacles, such as cases in which the persons concerned may lose the benefit of medical insurance if they return to work, or the failure to provide rehabilitation services at the appropriate time.

Although ILO standards call for the promotion of open and competitive employment for persons with disabilities, the number of facilities providing sheltered employment is increasing worldwide. A study was undertaken to examine labour relations and working conditions in sheltered employment in over 20 developing and industrialized countries.(29) Although the study found that many sheltered employment initiatives were effective in providing employment opportunities for workers with disabilities, in certain cases it also noted a failure to respect fundamental workers' rights, such as minimum wages, freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining. Sheltered employment seldom offers many career opportunities and, even in the most successful cases, only around 5 per cent of workers are able to make the transition from sheltered to ordinary employment.

To encourage research and the exchange of information on employment and training issues for persons with disabilities, the Office continued to support the Global Applied Disability Research and Information Network on Employment and Training (GLADNET), which it had initiated in 1995. Consisting of 100 social policy research institutes, universities, governmental and non-governmental organizations, the network became an independent entity in June 1997 with the creation of the GLADNET Association. Together with 12 partner organizations, the Office helps maintain the network's database and Web site (http://www.gladnet.org). The database contains current legislation, research reports, journal articles and unpublished information and is recognized as a leading on-line source of information, consulted regularly by researchers, policy-makers and ILO staff.

Combating drug and alcohol abuse

It is estimated that over 50 million people throughout the world are disabled by drug and alcohol abuse, which has become a cause of major concern in most countries. In particular, employers are rapidly becoming more aware of the high cost of drug and alcohol abuse in terms of absenteeism, illness and work-related casualties. It is estimated, for example, that on-the-job casualties linked to drugs and alcohol account for between 15 and 30 per cent of all work-related accidents. There is therefore growing interest worldwide in the implementation of prevention programmes, particularly at the workplace. Evaluations have shown such programmes to be very effective in reducing occupational accidents, sickness and accident benefit payments, absenteeism, grievances and disciplinary action at the workplace, often by 50 per cent or more.

As part of a broader international strategy to reduce demand for drugs and alcohol, the objectives of ILO action in this field consist of a dual strategy of prevention at the workplace and rehabilitation in the community. The activities carried out to achieve this objective continued to include policy formulation seminars, staff training courses, enterprise programmes and research covering over 40 countries.

The policy and conceptual framework for the ILO's work in this area is set out in the ILO Code of practice on the management of alcohol- and drug-related issues in the workplace, which was published in 1996.(30) Promotional activities to raise awareness of the code included three regional and subregional meetings in Chile, Senegal and Zimbabwe, where the implementation of the code was discussed in detail. It was also the focus of the policy working group of the Third International Private Sector Conference on Drugs in the Workplace and the Community, which was organized by the United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) in collaboration with the ILO in October 1997 in Malaysia. The participants at the Conference called for coordinated action at the national and international levels. They emphasized that all enterprises should have safety and health policies, which should include drug and alcohol prevention and assistance programmes, in which drug and alcohol abuse is treated as a health problem, without discrimination.

Under one technical cooperation project, some 40enterprises, representing a workforce of 125,000, have been adapting the ILO's model programme for drug and alcohol prevention for their own use. The participating enterprises have made a striking shift towards primary prevention. The enterprises include:

In each country, assistance was provided to set up tripartite advisory boards and national teams for project implementation. Training was organized for management and union representatives. These activities were supported by the adaptation of posters, brochures, videos and training manuals, and the establishment of a resource base for programme development.

With ILO assistance, over 100 enterprises have been developing prevention and assistance programmes for their workforce throughout the biennium. The findings of the project carried out in Egypt, Mexico, Namibia, Poland and Sri Lanka were disseminated through a series of subregional seminars held in 1996 and 1997 to promote replication. Another project is continuing to promote similar programmes in a total of 36 companies in Hungary, Latvia, Romania, the Russian Federation, Slovenia and Ukraine. An interregional project, covering Egypt, India, Malaysia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, was also launched in 1996 to mobilize and develop prevention programmes for small enterprises. The experience gained from the adaptation of the ILO's model programme for drug and alcohol prevention will be compiled in the form of a compendium of workplace prevention programmes, which will be published in 1998 to provide further guidance to constituents.

A drug and alcohol prevention project was finalized during the biennium in the Philippines , which is one of the world's major suppliers of seafarers. The ILO helped the National Maritime Polytechnic to integrate drug and alcohol prevention programmes into the training curricula of the country's maritime academies, in which all qualified Filipino seafarers are trained. The support provided included assistance in the adaptation of the relevant modules and the development of a handbook for trainers.

A programme of training activities for addiction rehabilitation was also carried out in the Asia and Pacific region. More than 200 social workers, counsellors and rehabilitation officers received training during the first phase of the programme, which was completed in 1997. Plans have now been drawn up for a second phase, focusing on a range of specialized courses on subjects such as income-generating activities for recovering addicts and prevention at the workplace. A large-scale project is also being carried out in India under which 18 NGOs in ten cities are being assisted in the development of rehabilitation programmes and support is being provided to 12 enterprises in six cities for the establishment of prevention programmes.

In a sector-specific activity, a global programme, undertaken at the request of the ILO's Joint Maritime Commission, continued to promote prevention initiatives in the maritime industry. A manual on drug and alcohol prevention programmes in the maritime industry was prepared in cooperation with two international shipping enterprises.(31) Intended for ship-owners and managers, it focuses on the establishment and implementation of a prevention programme, with emphasis on engaging masters and officers in preventing drug and alcohol problems. The manual evidently responded to a perceived need, since around 800 shipping companies worldwide requested copies over a period of a few months.

The ILO's recognized expertise in this field meant that it played a higher-profile role at the international level. In addition to collaborating closely with UNDCP and other international organizations, the ILO acted as task force manager for the preparation of the United Nations Plan of Action on Drug Abuse Prevention in the Workplace, which forms part of the System-Wide Action Plan on Drug Abuse Control (SWAP). During the biennium, the Office also participated in the drafting of the United Nations Declaration on the Guiding Principles of Drug Demand Reduction. The Declaration will be submitted for endorsement to a special session of the General Assembly in June 1998 devoted to the fight against the illicit production, sale, demand, trafficking and distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and related activities.

Occupational safety and health

At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and in subsequent major conferences, member States have repeatedly emphasized the link between health, environment and quality employment. Yet the major trends of recent years, including globalization, the rapid development of technology and the freer movement of goods and persons, bring with them a greater responsibility to harness their potential benefits and prevent any adverse effects. This applies in particular to issues of occupational and environmental safety and health. The objective of ILO action in this field is the increased capacity of member States to prevent or significantly reduce the incidence of occupational accidents and work-related diseases and to improve the working environment. This action continued to focus on developing standards and guidance, providing training to constituents and disseminating information on occupational hazards.

Examples of the results of ILO occupational safety and health technical cooperation activities include:

Preparations were made during the biennium for the launching of the new ILO Global Programme on Occupational Safety, Health and Environment, with the aim of bringing about lasting improvements in occupational safety and health. The priority of the Global Programme will be to ensure that the positive values of a strong safety, health and environmental culture are integrated at all levels in the globalization process as an urgent and critically important element of social stability and sustainable economic development. Current technical cooperation activities in Central America, Asia and French-speaking and southern African countries will be integrated into the new Programme. A framework document was prepared for the Programme, which will commence activities in 1998.(32)

Reliable information on the scope and impact of occupational accidents and work-related diseases is vital if the underlying issues are to be addressed effectively. To assist constituents in the compilation of the necessary data, the ILO Code of practice on the recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases was published in 1996(33) and has since been widely distributed. Current ILO estimates indicate that over one million deaths annually can be attributed to work-related causes, of which one-quarter are the result of accidents and three-quarters of occupational diseases. The burden of occupational risk factors is even greater when years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs) and disability adjusted life years (DALYs) are taken into account. An initiative was launched in collaboration with WHO and the Baltic countries to develop better indicators of the overall impact of occupational safety and health measures. A survey of occupational risks in the informal sector in Zimbabwe was also carried out with a view to providing indicative data on a sector for which information is not generally available.(34)

Little is known about the occupational safety and health situation in the informal sector , which normally falls outside national statistical and reporting systems. To help fill this gap, a survey was conducted of over 1,500 urban and rural informal sector workers in Zimbabwe . The findings of the survey, namely 131 work-related injuries per 1,000 workers, 116 work-related illnesses per 1,000 workers and an occupational mortality rate of 12.49 per 100,000, are all comparable with the figures for formal sector workers in countries with reliable reporting systems.

However, the operations carried out by informal sector workers tend to be poorly organized, the work environment is hardly ever designed for the activities in question and work often takes place in the open air. Rural work includes various tasks related to agriculture, which is usually two to three times more dangerous than the average. The figures therefore tend to confirm the potential for an improvement in the safety and health situation of informal sector workers through simple and low-cost safety measures.

The ILO has taken the lead in pioneering innovative approaches to the improvement of safety and health in agriculture and the informal sector. Safety and health in agriculture frequently receive less attention from national authorities than problems in other sectors. This is partly due to the greater emphasis that is often placed on industrial development and partly because of the difficulties involved in dealing with safety and health issues in a very complex sector covering a great variety of activities. Moreover, agriculture is excluded from labour laws and occupational safety and health regulations in many countries. A model strategy was drawn up and tested in a technical cooperation project in Central America. Inter-institutional coordination was promoted between the various responsible ministries and institutions and the social partners, with tripartite national committees being set up in each participating country for the development of a national programme on occupational safety and health in agriculture, including the updating of the relevant legislation. Using awareness-raising activities, information and training as the main tools, emphasis was placed on the extension of occupational health services to agricultural workers through the primary health care structure. Guidelines on ergonomic measures for agricultural workers were also developed and tested in national seminars in Costa Rica and Panama.(35) Methods of improving safety and health in the informal sector were tested in a project in the United Republic of Tanzania, which was based on clusters of micro-enterprises, and in a number of action programmes in the Philippines. The experience gained from these action programmes led up to the launching of a regional programme covering the Philippines, Nepal and Malaysia. The methodology adopted by the above programme combines the approaches used in the Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) and Work Improvements in Small Enterprises (WISE) programmes (see Chapter 5).

A pilot project on safety and health in the informal sector was implemented in Dar es Salaam. Initiated under the 1994-95 interdepartmental project on the informal sector, health promotion committees were set up covering 11 clusters of micro-enterprises. Over 60 committee members were trained and basic information tools, including checklists, posters and comics in Swahili, were produced for their use. Training consisted mainly of participatory learning techniques at the workplace, leading to the integration of low-cost corrective measures, such as basic safety measures, the rearrangement of the workplace, the modification of table and stool heights, changes in work practices and the appropriate use of tools.

Ten committee members were trained in first aid in collaboration with the Red Cross. Their training included the provision of health care services, the maintenance of basic health records and health promotion activities. Nearly 30 city council health providers were also trained in occupational health and visited the clusters once a week to carry out health promotion activities, including basic sanitation, immunization campaigns and contact with the first-aiders. Five of the clusters are also covered by the UMASIDA health insurance scheme (described below in the section on social security).

An evaluation of the project carried out at the end of the biennium found much greater awareness among workers of safety and health problems, better housekeeping practices at the workplace and evidence of a decrease in the number of minor injuries.

International labour standards on occupational safety and health provide an important benchmark for national policies and action, as well as defining the international environment in which companies operate. The key standards in this respect are the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155), and the Occupational Health Services Convention, 1985 (No.161). During the biennium, 12 new ratifications of safety and health Conventions were registered. The Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents Convention, 1993 (No. 174), entered into force in 1997 and, now that it has received four ratifications, the Safety and Health in Mines Convention, 1995 (No. 176), will come into force in 1998.

The improved application of these standards was pursued through the provision of technical support in several countries. Constituents in Bulgaria and the Russian Federation were assisted with the implementation of occupational safety and health policies, while a seminar was conducted for women trade unionists in the Philippines to train them to become safety and health instructors. Capacity-building activities included the development of guidance materials on such important components of occupational safety and health policies as national safety councils and bipartite occupational safety and health committees, occupational health services and workers' health surveillance.(36) The role of occupational health services in national health protection and promotion strategies was examined in two international workshops held in Singapore and France in collaboration with WHO.

The surveillance of workers' health has always been an important component of preventive health care. However, there was a need to reassess workers' health surveillance within the framework of a global strategy of occupational health for all and in the light of the new definition of occupational health adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health in 1995. A meeting of experts was therefore held in September 1997 to review current practice and prepare guidelines. The guidelines, which are intended for governments and employers' and workers' organizations, as well as occupational health and public health professionals, provide assistance in the design and implementation of comprehensive workers' health surveillance systems at the national and enterprise levels.(37)

Occupational respiratory diseases constitute an important occupational health problem. Diseases caused by dusts, and particularly silica dust and asbestos, remain a serious occupational health issue in many countries, while the incidence of allergic respiratory diseases and occupational asthma is escalating rapidly. Capacity-building activities to combat this problem included training for specialists in the use of the ILO International Classification of Radiographs of Pneumoconioses in national training workshops in China, Costa Rica and Indonesia. Experts from all over the world, meeting at the Ninth International Conference on Occupational Respiratory Diseases (ICORD) in Kyoto in October 1997, reviewed a revised and simpler version of the Classification. A draft code of practice on safety in the use of insulation wools was also developed during the biennium and will be reviewed by a meeting of experts to be held in 1999. Further to a recommendation made by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health in 1995, the ILO and WHO prepared a joint ILO/WHO international programme towards the global elimination of silicosis. Silicosis is a preventable disease and experience in a number of countries has demonstrated convincingly that it is possible to reduce its incidence significantly through cost-effective programmes. The joint ILO/WHO programme is designed to mobilize the international scientific community and encourage countries to adopt their own national programmes. In this respect, the national workshops in China and Indonesia referred to above both recommended the adoption of national programmes to combat silicosis.

The development of authoritative international guidance was also pursued in a number of other areas, including ergonomics, safety in the use of biological agents, ambient factors and occupational radiation protection. A manual on ergonomic checkpoints was published in 1996.(38) The manual was promoted in seminars in Mauritius, the United Republic of Tanzania, Thailand and South Africa. Its translation has been commenced or is planned into Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia, Chinese, Farsi, French, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Portuguese and Thai. A draft code of practice on ambient factors in the workplace was also prepared, covering noise, vibration, temperature, humidity, illumination and radiation.(39) The code of practice is intended to provide comprehensive guidance on the application of the Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977 (No. 148), and will be submitted to a tripartite meeting of experts for revision and approval during the biennium 1998-99. In response to the resolution adopted by the Governing Body in 1993 concerning exposure to and safety in the use of biological agents at work, preparations were begun on guidelines on this subject for the use of government agencies, employers' and workers' organizations and other interested groups. The ILO also cooperated with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for the development of a safety guide on occupational radiation protection.(40)

World Congresses on Occupational Safety and Health are a regular landmark of national and international cooperation in the field of occupational safety and health. Organized by the ILO, the International Social Security Association (ISSA) and the host country, the XIVth World Congress in Madrid in April 1996 was attended by some 2,500 participants from 110 countries who, among other activities, discussed the ILO's paper on the implications of globalization for occupational safety and health.(41) Preparatory work has begun for the XVth World Congress, to be held in São Paulo in 1999. At the international level, the ILO continued to expand its cooperation with WHO, particularly through its participation in the formulation of WHO Regional Plans of Action for Occupational Health in Europe and the Caribbean.

Safety and health information services

A large proportion of the deaths and injuries suffered by workers every year can be attributed to inadequate safety and health information. The compilation and dissemination of safety and health information in a readily usable and internationally comparable form is a major instrument in the prevention of occupational accidents and work-related diseases. The objectives of ILO action in this field are:

The backbone of these activities is the International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS), which is the focal point of a network of some 120 National and Collaborating Centres.

The Asian-Pacific Regional Network on Occupational Safety and Health makes available to participating institutions and national authorities in the region a large quantity of information using both conventional and electronic methods. The Network's Internet site is located in Thailand (http://www.nectec.or.th/bureaux/un/asia-osh/index.html). Examples of the network's use during the biennium included:

Full use was made during the biennium of the potential of the Internet to improve access to information and networking between CIS centres. A description of the services provided by CIS, full information on selected occupational safety and health products, the CIS database CISDOC and hyperlinks to the e-mail addresses and Web sites of CIS centres are all available through the CIS home page, which is itself accessible through the ILO Web site. The English-French-Spanish CIS Thesaurus, which serves as the basis for the indexing of CIS Bulletins and the CISDOC database, will also be made available on the Internet during the biennium 1998-99.

Technical cooperation activities covering some 40 countries helped to develop and strengthen networking between occupational safety and health institutions, particularly in Asian countries. The development of Internet sites, the organization of training workshops on occupational safety and health information and the provision of safety and health references through CIS centres have all served to improve the flow of information on safety and health issues at the workplace. Assistance activities were particularly intensive in Mongolia, Thailand and Viet Nam. Links were improved between occupational safety and health institutions in Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Mali and Niger and the global network of safety and health centres. A network was also established between occupational safety and health institutions in several southern African countries, while training activities were organized to strengthen the involvement of workers' representatives in occupational safety and health matters in the region. Information on regional activities was provided in the African newsletter on occupational safety and health and the Asian-Pacific newsletter on occupational safety and health, both of which appeared six times during the biennium.

Examples of the strengthening of capacities for the dissemination of information on occupational safety and health issues during the biennium included:

The CIS's work of compiling occupational safety and health information centred around the collection of over 100,000 recent publications, of which some 4,000 were summarized and indexed. The summaries appear in the bimonthly Safety and health at work: ILO/CIS Bulletin, which is also available in French and Spanish. The full information is stored and disseminated through the CIS microfiche collection. In this work, priority is given to legislation published at the national and international levels, training materials and publications responding to the concerns expressed by constituents. By way of illustration, in response to the resolution adopted by the Governing Body in 1993 concerning exposure to and safety in the use of biological agents at work, over 100 documents on this subject were reviewed and included in the CISDOC database, with the summaries published in the Bulletin.
 

ILO Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety

The Fourth Edition of the ILO Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, one of the world's major works of reference, was finalized during the biennium for publication in a four-volume print version and on CD-ROM.

The Encyclopaedia is intended for a worldwide audience of specialists and non-specialists alike, including workers, trade union leaders, managers, lawyers, doctors, nurses, engineers, industrial hygienists, toxicologists and regulators. It provides comprehensive coverage of all their fields and the information that they require on other disciplines.

The new presentation and expanded contents of the Fourth Edition were developed through an intensive process of consultation with leading experts and health and safety institutions throughout the world. Drafted and edited by recognized authorities, each article has been peer-reviewed to ensure accuracy and relevance. A network of more than 2,000 specialists from over 60 countries, drawn from nearly every professional organization and major academic, governmental and non-profit institution involved in occupational safety and health, contributed to the design, drafting and review of this international classic.

With a view to the production of safety and health information in a form that is particularly appropriate for use in small enterprises, a project was launched for the production of data sheets on occupational hazards. Based on standard phrases to ensure their consistency and facilitate machine translation, a start was made with the production of some 20 data sheets, which were reviewed by collaborating agencies.

The main event of the biennium as regards the compilation of safety and health information was the finalization of the fourth edition of the ILO Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety.(42)

Environment and the world of work

In the follow-up to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and other subsequent major conferences aimed at promoting sustainable development based on social justice and meaningful and healthy employment, environmental issues have become integral to many of the ILO's activities, including the assistance that it provides for labour administrations, employers' and workers' organizations, enterprise development and, of course, in the field of occupational safety and health. The ILO has also stepped up its collaboration with other United Nations agencies in a number of fields, including chemical safety, and participated in several international conferences and meetings relevant to environment and the world of work. These included the Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly, held in June 1997, to review achievements five years after UNCED, where the ILO presented an overview of its contributions to the goal of sustainable development.

A good example of collaboration between the social partners in the field of environment and the world of work is the occupational and environmental hazard mapping initiative in Chile . Hazard mapping is a technique originally pioneered by Italian trade unions and subsequently taken up by health and safety institutions in Spain and several Latin American countries. It involves the identification of potential hazards by workers and employers, their assessment and the adoption of solutions.

Initially launched in Chile by the Mineworkers' Federation with the support of the ILO, safety and health specialists from the mine inspectorate, the national health institute and the labour inspectorate, the project obtained the full cooperation of several mining companies for joint hazard mapping and prevention in plants and mines. In a climate of adversarial labour relations, it provided an opportunity for contact and dialogue between employers and workers' representatives. The Mineworkers' Federation went on to organize successful national conferences on the subject in 1996 and 1997, which were attended by the Minister of Labour and managers from several companies. The project is highly regarded in Chile and has clear potential for replication elsewhere.

As a result of ILO activities, particularly to strengthen employers' and workers' organizations, bipartite and tripartite dialogue has been established in several countries, including Chile, the Philippines and Sri Lanka, to discuss issues of workplace environmental training, social services and environmental protection. In Chile, an initiative has been developed for the mapping of hazards in the mining industry (see box) and a national tripartite commission adopted a code of practice for forestry. In Sri Lanka the management and workers in a number of enterprises have agreed to collaborate for the identification and introduction of cleaner production methods.

The ILO's principal contribution to environmental issues during the biennium was related to chemical safety. The importance of chemical safety and the fact that chemicals constitute around four-fifths of industrial hazards are not often fully appreciated. In the promotion of chemical safety worldwide, great importance needs to be attached to the development of standardized and globally understood labels and signs. It is also necessary to produce an effective and clear instrument for the dissemination of essential information on chemical hazards at the workplace, and particularly in small and medium-sized enterprises. In the activities carried out in this field, the ILO worked closely with other specialized agencies and international organizations, particularly within the respective frameworks of the joint WHO/ILO/UNEP International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS), created in 1994 to reach a consensus between countries on global priorities for action, and the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). In all of these activities, emphasis was placed on the full participation of experts from employers' and workers' organizations.
 

Hazard symbols, originally proposed by the ILO in the 1950s, which have since been almost universally adopted, with minor variations, as warnings concerning explosive, inflammable and toxic substances respectively.

In a globalized world in which chemical products and workers cross national borders with increasing frequency, it is of great importance to develop a universally recognized harmonized system for the classification and labelling of chemicals. In close collaboration with the United Nations' ECOSOC Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and the OECD, the formulation of a set of proposed classification criteria and tests for 14 hazard categories was completed. Following the development by the end of 1999 of a set of harmonized chemical hazard communication tools, including labelling, chemical safety data sheets and training activities, the Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) should be available and in use by the year 2000, as recommended by UNCED. Over the years, the ILO's work on the labelling of chemicals has had a very broad impact, with many of the signs and symbols designed by the ILO being incorporated into international and regional labelling systems, such as that developed by the European Union. These symbols are highly visible in everyday life, from the workplace to supermarkets, chemical containers and transport facilities.

Under the auspices of the IPCS, the ILO also continued to manage the development, translation and dissemination of International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs) for the communication of clear and standardized information on the properties of chemical substances at the workplace.( 43)
 

International Chemical Safety Cards

International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs) are designed to provide a clear summary of essential health and safety information on chemical substances for use at the workplace by workers, employers and officials responsible for safety and health. In particular, they constitute a practical means of providing this important information to small and medium-sized enterprises.

Although ICSCs have no legal status, the information provided broadly conforms to the Chemicals Convention (No. 170) and Recommendation (No. 177), 1990, as well as the relevant European Union Directives. ICSCs are subjected to peer review by specialized institutions in member States, taking into account the advice provided by manufacturers, the social partners and other specialized institutions.

ICSCs are created and updated using standard phrases which, once they have been established in the various languages, are translated directly using special software. In addition to English, French, Spanish and German, ICSCs are available in many other languages, including Japanese, Chinese and Swahili. The translation of ICSCs into Russian, Korean, Urdu, Sinhalese, Arabic and Vietnamese is also ongoing or planned. The cards are currently available on the Internet in Japanese, and will soon be accessible on line in English, French, Spanish and other languages. A Chemical Safety CD-ROM was produced during the biennium containing over 1,000 ICSCs in English, Finnish and Swahili, as well as chemical safety training modules, a manual on pesticide safety and the relevant ILO Conventions, Recommendations and codes of practice.

A large number of enterprises subscribe to the CD-ROM version of the cards produced by the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. The Spanish version of the cards, produced by the Spanish National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, is distributed in Spain and throughout Latin America. The Swahili version has been disseminated to enterprises in Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda through ILO technical cooperation projects.

An action programme on Safety in the use of chemicals at work was undertaken during the biennium with the objective of strengthening national capacity, including that of employers' and workers' organizations, to design and implement national programmes for the environmentally sound management of hazardous chemicals and their waste products. A number of guidance materials were prepared, including a guide on chemical risk assessment in small and medium-sized enterprises,(44) a textbook for secondary schools on safety in the use of chemicals(45) and chemical safety pages for 20 priority chemicals, which will be made available on the Internet. This work was presented at a series of national and subregional training seminars held in Bahrain, Bangladesh, Lebanon and Mauritius.

One of the keys to successful action to improve chemical safety at both the national and international levels is to ensure adequate coordination between the authorities and institutions competent in such fields as labour matters, economic and industrial development, public health and agriculture, all of which bear some responsibility for safety in the use of chemicals. Without such coordination, it is not uncommon to find that unharmonized and, in some cases, conflicting regulations and directives have been formulated. The need for interministerial coordination was therefore emphasized in the activities carried out in the framework of the action programme, as well as that of enhanced coordination at the international level. These issues were examined in a study of law and practice in the field of chemical safety in Asia( 46) and in a comparative analysis of the chemical safety activities of the ILO, OECD, UNEP and FAO.(47)

An ILO study on law and practice relating to chemical safety in Asia found strong inter-ministerial coordination for chemical safety policy implementation in Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman and the Syrian Arab Republic. It also noted progress in the field of chemical safety in:

Conditions of work

Competitive pressures in globalized economies, resource constraints in the public sector and the privatization of public enterprises mean that governments, employers and workers are facing a growing dilemma as far as working conditions are concerned. In many cases, an uneasy compromise has emerged between strategies which emphasize economic imperatives and the need for flexible responses, and those which focus on investment in human resource development. There is a need not only to strengthen basic worker protection, but also to develop appropriate types of protection adapted to new forms of work, working relationships and work environments.

It is against this background that the ILO has implemented a programme of activities to improve working conditions, with the underlying theme that working conditions and the organization of work are key components of the competitive equation at any workplace. The principal objectives of ILO activities in this field are increased awareness by constituents of the need to provide essential protection to workers; broader acceptance of the fact that good working conditions lead to greater efficiency and productivity; and the adoption by constituents of policies and programmes to protect the dignity of workers and improve their working conditions.
 

Home work standards

The Home Work Convention (No. 177), adopted by the Conference in 1996, contains a definition of home work. Its main requirements for ratifying States are:

  • the adoption, implementation and periodic review of a national policy on home work aimed at improving the situation of homeworkers, in consultation with the most representative organizations of employers and workers and, where they exist, with organizations concerned with homeworkers and employers of homeworkers;
  • the promotion through the national policy on home work, as far as possible, of equality of treatment between homeworkers and other wage-earners, particularly in relation to:
    • the right of homeworkers to establish or join organizations of their own choosing;
    • protection against discrimination in employment and occupation;
    • remuneration;
    • statutory social security protection;
    • access to training;
    • minimum age for admission to employment or work; and
    • maternity protection;
  • the application of national laws and regulations on safety and health at work to home work, taking account of its special characteristics;
  • where the use of intermediaries in home work is permitted, the determination of the respective responsibilities of employers and intermediaries by laws and regulations or by court decisions, in accordance with national practice; and
  • the implementation of a system of inspection for home work.

The Home Work Recommendation (No. 184) supplements these provisions with further guidance in such areas as the supervision of home work, minimum age, remuneration, occupational safety and health, working time, social security and maternity protection, termination of employment, the resolution of disputes and programmes related to home work.

As traditional models of employment and employment patterns change, protection needs to be adapted. In 1994, the Conference adopted the Part-time Work Convention (No. 175) and Recommendation (No. 182) to provide appropriate protection to the growing numbers of part-time workers. To extend the protection available to another expanding category of workers, the Conference adopted the Home Work Convention (No. 177) and Recommendation (No. 184) in 1996. The home work standards are being used widely by associations of homeworkers and trade unions for advocacy purposes and for the design of measures to assist and protect homeworkers.

An important focus of activities to improve working conditions continued to be the Work Improvements in Small Enterprises (WISE) programme. Training workshops using this methodology were held in Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras, Indonesia, Mauritius, Mexico, Nepal, Seychelles, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Technical cooperation projects were prepared for Kenya, Seychelles and Uganda. The WISE manual, which is available in English, French, Spanish, Bahasa Indonesia, Hungarian, Portuguese and Thai, was also translated into Vietnamese.(48) The manual was adapted in the Philippines to help workers make improvements in small enterprises.(49) Using the WISE framework, a manual was also prepared for the garment industry, which employs a large number of women and is a major export industry in many developing countries.(50 )

A three-year Work Improvements in Small Enterprises (WISE) project in the Philippines came to an end in 1997. The project is considered by the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) to be a "flagship" project among its activities to assist small enterprises, and a commitment has been made to institutionalize WISE throughout the country, with the WISE approach constituting an integral component of DOLE's objectives and activities.

A DOLE publication provides illustrations of the improvements in working conditions brought about in the Philippines through the WISE project, including:

The ILO continued to be at the forefront in addressing the protection of workers' dignity and equality in the workplace, notably in its recent work on workers' privacy and on workplace violence. A Meeting of Experts on Workers' Privacy, held in October 1996, adopted an ILO Code of practice on the protection of workers' personal data to address the new possibilities offered by modern technology for the collection, use and transfer of workers' personal data and monitoring and surveillance at the workplace.(51) The code of practice has aroused considerable interest in several countries. Draft legislation based on the code has been prepared in Argentina. The code has been translated into Finnish by the tripartite Finnish National ILO Committee. It was used as background material for the annual Privacy Issues Forum, held in New Zealand, and it received good press coverage. On the issue of violence at work, a study to be published in early 1998 reviews successful methods of prevention and highlights best practice.(52) Intended in particular for health and safety professionals, personnel managers and employers' and workers' organizations, the publication draws attention to a problem which has a high social and economic cost.

The high social and economic cost of violence at work is illustrated by the following examples:

Social security

Many national social protection systems are facing dramatic changes. Industrialized countries are reviewing the affordability, effectiveness and efficiency of their social security systems in the context of persistently high levels of unemployment, the re-emergence of poverty, the globalization of their economies, the ageing of the population, shifting patterns of work and life, and changing societal values. Adaptations of classical models of social security are being developed in the newly industrializing Asian countries. In many developing countries, the simple transfer of social security concepts from the industrialized world has failed over the past decade and newer, more modest and more appropriate systems are being sought for the provision of some degree of protection to the population. These concerns and the reform proposals made in several countries have led the ILO, as well as other international organizations, to reflect on new directions for pensions policy.

Indications of the progress achieved in the field of social security in member States , with ILO assistance, include:

The objectives of ILO action in relation to social security are:

The activities carried out to pursue these objectives consisted of assistance in the establishment and development of social security schemes and legislation, actuarial support for the operation of social security systems and the compilation and dissemination of quantitative information on the operation of national social protection schemes. In addition, three action programmes were carried out covering, respectively: the development of a framework for planning social security reforms; the improvement of the governance of social security schemes; and the extension of coverage to population groups not currently protected by traditional social security schemes. These activities were designed to address fundamental issues relating to social security standards, provide practical guidance for reforms of social security systems and develop the ILO's standing as a major force in national and international discussions on the future of social protection policies.

Over 40 countries benefited from technical cooperation and advisory services in the field of social security during the biennium. Technical assistance was provided for the development of draft legislation covering social security matters in Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Czech Republic, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, Ukraine, Uruguay and Venezuela. Advisory services were also provided concerning multilateral social security agreements in the member States of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and are planned for the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and southern African countries. Despite some policy differences, the ILO collaborated closely with both the World Bank and the IMF on technical advisory work in several countries, including Azerbaijan, the Philippines, Turkey, Ukraine and Zambia.

In response to requests from many social security institutions, especially in developing countries, a set of five training manuals was prepared covering pensions, financing, health care, social security principles and administration.(53) Accompanied by a trainers' guide and transparencies, these will provide the basis for training courses on social security. The development of training materials in French also continued, while key social security guides and reports were translated into Chinese and Russian. In collaboration with the Turin Centre, courses were conducted for Russian- and Chinese-speaking social security officials. A training programme was also carried out to increase workers' representatives' awareness of social security concepts in Bangladesh, Eritrea and Viet Nam.

With the objective of improving the access of constituents to the financial, actuarial and quantitative assessments required for the design of social security schemes and their efficient management and operation, the ILO continued to provide technical assistance on quantitative methodologies to national social protection systems and specific social security schemes. A combined actuarial and social budget project was completed in Turkey and a project was undertaken on the institutional budget of the newly independent National Social Security Institution in Bulgaria. Technical advisory services were provided in 20 countries and technical support was delivered in the context of 11 technical cooperation projects. Training was also organized for officials responsible for social security in Bulgaria, Latvia, Turkey, Ukraine and Viet Nam, as well as for specialists from English-speaking Caribbean countries, sub-Saharan African countries and English-speaking African countries. A training course on social budgeting techniques was held in Santiago de Chile in September 1997. In support of the ILO's training activities, textbooks were prepared on the actuarial aspects of social security pensions(54) and quantitative techniques for the financing of statutory health-care schemes.(55) The effectiveness of the support provided through these activities is illustrated by the continuing consultation processes established with constituents, following technical cooperation or training activities, in Benin, Bulgaria, Senegal, Thailand and Ukraine. A brief publication was produced during the biennium to inform constituents of the services available to them from the ILO's International Financial and Actuarial Service.(56)

As a basis for this work, important improvements were made to the ILO actuarial model. The Social Budget Model was further developed and now serves as a framework for all models for specific branches of national social protection systems. It links overall national social expenditure to demographic and economic development and shows the impact of social expenditure and its financing on the state budget. It is therefore a major tool for the macro-financial and macro-fiscal management of the whole social sector. A preliminary technical guide was widely circulated in 1996 and was further developed in 1997.(57) Pension, health and wage distribution models were also developed.(58) They are available on diskette, operate on standard personal computers and are considered to be freeware for governments and social security institutions in member States. During the biennium, these models were transferred to countries in which training in their use could be organized. Beneficiary countries included the Bahamas, Bulgaria, Burundi, Turkey, Viet Nam and Zambia, followed by Colombia, Panama, Thailand and Ukraine. Some indication of the significance of the models is given by the requests received for presentations of the social budget modelling approach from the World Bank, IMF and Inter-American Development Bank, as well as by the ILO's collaboration with the World Bank in the development of models in Ukraine and in technical cooperation activities in Bulgaria.

The availability of internationally comparable and up-to-date information on expenditure on social security is becoming increasingly important for the formulation of national social policy. Comparative information and guidance continued to be provided for policy-makers, planners and experts through the ILO inquiry into the cost of social security.(59) The results of the latest inquiry, covering the years up to 1993, were published on the Internet on the ILO Web site in early 1997. A new concept was developed to make the series compatible with the EUROSTAT database for European countries. Although it is difficult to assess the effectiveness of the provision of information to constituents through this unique database, the willingness of EUROSTAT and OECD to collaborate with the ILO serves as an indicator of the value placed on this information source by their constituents.

A range of research and analytical activities were also carried out as a basis for the dissemination of information and the provision of guidance on specific topics in the field of social protection. Research papers were published on social security financing, expenditure and modelling techniques. The ILO entered the policy debate on the future viability of national social protection in all regions by presenting papers at various conferences and meetings and publishing them as discussion papers.(60) The three action programmes also made a major contribution to supporting ILO advocacy in these policy debates.

Reform and development of social protection: A framework for planning

With a view to providing constituents with a framework for planning reforms and improvements in the operation of their social security systems, two action programmes were carried out. These were entitled Reforming and developing systems of social protection: A framework for planning and Improving the governance, management, administration and operation of social security programmes. The experience of a wide range of countries in the reform of social protection systems, and the results of these reforms, were analysed in a series of reports on various aspects of the planning of social security reforms. These reports were then used as a basis for the consultation of constituents in a series of six seminars on old-age and other pensions held in Abidjan, Bangkok, Budapest, Harare, Lima and Paris. Each seminar was attended by five participants representing governments, employers and workers, and five participants from social security institutions. The discussions reflected the concerns of the participants with regard to the extension of coverage, the improvement of governance and management, and recent developments towards multi-tiered pension schemes, which may incorporate funded as well as unfunded financing and private as well as public components. The discussions, and the papers submitted to the seminars, will form the basis of a major publication which will appear in 1998. The views expressed at the meetings will be reflected in a report to the Governing Body in 1998.

This process of research and consultation led to the identification of viable options for the reform of national social protection systems. The findings of this work will be directly applicable to future technical cooperation activities and will be further refined in the action programme An operational framework for social security, which will be undertaken during the biennium 1998-99.

The performance of many social security schemes, particularly in developing countries, is hampered by inefficient management and governance. The process of consultation described above was therefore also designed to cover measures to improve the efficiency and governance of social security schemes. This process led to the development of two good practice manuals, which will be finalized during the course of 1998. One of the manuals will cover institutional arrangements and the role of the social partners, while the other will analyse the principal problems encountered in the administration of social security schemes and provide practical guidance on how to overcome them.

Social safety nets, social assistance and the prevention of poverty

Many people in developing countries, as well as a significant number in industrialized countries, do not have access to conventional social security schemes, or are too poor to join them on a voluntary basis. The problem is to develop viable means of providing social protection to these categories of the population, or alternatively of helping them develop their own mechanisms. An action programme was therefore carried out with the objective of developing a solid basis for the design and implementation of social protection measures for population categories which are currently unprotected or badly protected.
 

The UMASIDA health insurance scheme was set up in December 1995 when five informal sector associations in Dar es Salaam formed an umbrella organization for the provision of health care to their members. Around 1,500 workers, as well as about 4,500 family members, are affiliated to the scheme. It covers all the primary health services required by its members, who are referred to government health care units for secondary and tertiary services, as well as complicated medical investigations.

The scheme is self-financing and contribution rates are equivalent to Tsh.20 per day per person and Tsh.40 per family (both figures represent well under 5 per cent of average daily earnings of informal sector workers). The contributions are made by the informal sector associations for their members. There are various modes of operation and contribution, depending on the association. These include a capitation fee (a fixed rate of contribution per capita in exchange for free health care from a local provider) and an enterprise clinic for one cooperative grouping some 1,000 workers. The enterprise clinic has been successful in substantially cutting the cost of primary health care for beneficiaries and in cutting accidents and work-related illnesses by holding health education seminars for members.

In 1998, it is planned to extend the scheme to five more informal sector associations in Dar es Salaam. Preparations have also been made for the replication of the scheme elsewhere in the United Republic of Tanzania and in Benin, El Salvador and India.

The analyses undertaken in the framework of the action programme resulted in the preparation of a publication on the present and future role of tax revenues in providing basic social protection for old age, health and other contingencies.(61) A study was also completed on social protection of informal sector workers in Colombia(62) as part of the 1994-95 interdepartmental project on the informal sector, while another covered social security in India.(63) As an extension of the interdepartmental project, a project was launched in Dar es Salaam for the establishment of a mutual benefit society for the provision of health care to informal sector workers (see box). The findings of this work were used for the development of a project document for an interregional social security project for the informal sector, supported by feasibility studies for Benin, El Salvador, India and the United Republic of Tanzania.(64) The work of the action programme included the preparation of a bibliography on social security for the informal sector(65) and an ILO policy paper on social security in the informal sector.(66) It may therefore be concluded that the action programme played an important role in identifying and developing viable forms of social protection for informal sector workers. However, emphasis now needs to be given to raising awareness among constituents and encouraging donors to support the widespread replication of these mechanisms.

Notes

1. Gender and jobs: Sex segregation of occupations in the world, by R. Anker, 1998.

2. Document GB.265/4, 1996.

3. Maternity protection at work: Revision of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952 (No.103), and Recommendation, 1952 (No. 95), Report V(1), International Labour Conference, 87th Session, 1999.

4. ILO International Programme on More and Better Jobs for Women (a brochure), 1997; and More and better jobs for women: An action guide, by Lin Lean Lim, 1996.

5. The sex sector: The economic and social bases of prostitution in South-East Asia, by Lin Lean Lim (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

6. "Sexual harassment in employment: Recent judicial and arbitral trends", by J. Aeberhard-Hodges, in International Labour Review, Vol. 135 (1996), No. 5, pp. 499-533.

7. We can make it: Stories of disabled women in developing countries, by S. Epstein, 1997.

8. Breaking through the glass ceiling: Women in management, Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Breaking through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management, Geneva, 1997.

9. Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 1, Bolivia, by M. Contreras, 1997 (in Spanish); Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 2, Egypt, by H. Kheir-El-Din, 1997; Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 3, Honduras, by J.R. del Cid, 1997; Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 4, Madagascar, by E. Raparson, 1997 (in French); Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 5, Mexico, by N. Samaniego Breach, 1997 (in Spanish); Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 6, Peru, by APOYO, 1997 (in Spanish); Social funds: Employment and gender dimensions, Case study 7, Zambia, by J. Milimo and P. Chibuye, 1997; and Social funds revisited: An overview with a particular focus on employment and gender dimensions, by A. Berar Awad, 1997.

10. Labour administration: Key actor in a policy of sexual equality in employment: Summary report on actions undertaken in Chile, China, France, Ghana and Romania (including six guidance sheets on good administrative practices), by L. Hantrais and M. Sineau, in collaboration with B. Lust (forthcoming).

11. Action against child labour: Lessons and strategic priorities for the future -- A synthesis report, 1997.

12. Child labour in commercial agriculture in Africa, Report of the Technical Workshop on Child Labour in Commercial Agriculture in Africa, Dar es Salaam, 27-30 August, 1996.

13. A survey of child labour in South-East Asian manufacturing industries: Summary and reflections, by M. Falkus, IPEC Asia papers No. 2, 1996.

14. Child labour: Targeting the intolerable, Report VI(1), International Labour Conference, 86th Session, 1998.

15. Child labour and education, a synthesis report and resource kit (forthcoming).

16. Manual on action planning for the progressive elimination of child labour (forthcoming).

17. Protecting the most vulnerable of today's workers, Discussion paper, Tripartite Meeting of Experts on Future ILO Activities in the Field of Migration, Geneva, 1997.

18. Migration from the Maghreb and migration pressures: Current situation and future prospects, by D.Giubilaro, 1997.

19. Emigration pressures and structural change: Case study of the Philippines, by A. Saith, 1997; and Emigration pressures and structural change: Case study of Indonesia, by D. Nayyar, 1997.

20. Sending workers abroad: A manual for low- and middle-income countries, by M. Abella, 1997.

21. "International trade in services: A growing trend among highly skilled migrants with special reference to Asia", by P. Garnier, in Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1996, pp. 367-397.

22. Combating discrimination against migrant workers: International standards, national legislation and voluntary measures -- The need for a multi-pronged strategy, by R. Zegers de Beijl, 1997; Discrimination against job applicants of migrant origin, by R. Zegers de Beijl (forthcoming); A manual on achieving equality for (im)migrant and ethnic minority workers (will be available in French and Spanish) (forthcoming); Discrimination against migrants and ethnic minorities in access to employment in Belgium, by P. Arryn, S. Feld, A.Nayer and B. Smeesters; Protecting migrants and ethnic minorities from discrimination in employment: The Belgian experience, by B. Smeesters and A. Nayer (forthcoming); Anti-discrimination training in Belgium, by F. Castelain and H. Delagrange (forthcoming) [subsequently published]; Report on Danish experiences with anti-discrimination legislation, by N. Hansen ; Protecting (im)migrants and ethnic minorities from discrimination in employment: Finnish and Swedish experiences, by K. Vuori and R. Zegers de Beijl, 1996; Anti-discrimination training activities in Finland, by K. Vuori, 1997; Labour market discrimination against foreign workers in Germany, by A. Goldberg, D. Mourinho and U. Kulke, 1996; Antidiskriminierungsgesetzgebung zum Schutz der Migranten: Erforderlichkeit und ein Gesetzesvorschlag für Deutschland, by U. Kulke, 1996; The quest for anti-discrimination policies to protect migrants in Germany: An assessment of the political discussion and proposals for legislation, by D. Addy, 1997; The documentation and evaluation of anti-discrimination training activities in the Netherlands, by J. Abell, A. Havelaar and M. Dankoor, 1997; Labour market discrimination against migrant workers in Spain, by Colectivo IOE and R. Pérez Molina, 1996; Anti-discrimination training activities in Spain, by Colectivo IOE, 1997; The evaluation of anti-discrimination training activities in the United Kingdom, by P. Taylor, D. Powell and J. Wrench, 1997; Is anti-discrimination training effective?, Report of a workshop held at the Department for Education and Employment, London, 1997; Discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities in access to employment in the United States: Empirical findings from situation testing, by M. Bendick, Jr., 1996; Documentation and evaluation of anti-discrimination training in the United States, by M. Bendick, Jr. .

23. Pueblos indígenas de la Amazonía Peruana y desarrollo sostenible, Documento de trabajo, 1997.

24. Effective negotiation by indigenous peoples: An action guide with special reference to North America, by R. Barsh and K. Bastien, 1997.

25. Indigenous and tribal peoples: A guide to ILO Convention No. 169, an information package produced jointly by the ILO and the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, Montreal, 1996.

26. Disability issues in national labour codes: Some pointers and examples on how to deal with them (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

27. Vocational rehabilitation and employment of disabled persons, General Survey of the Reports on the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention (No. 159) and Recommendation (No. 168), 1983, Report III (Part 1B), International Labour Conference, 86th Session, 1998.

28. Employment quotas, levies and national rehabilitation funds for persons with disabilities: Pointers for policy and practice (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

29. Les relations de travail en milieu protégé, 1998 (forthcoming in English and Spanish).

30. Management of alcohol- and drug-related issues in the workplace: An ILO code of practice, 1996.

31. Drug and alcohol prevention programmes in the maritime industry (A manual for planners), 1996.

32. Global Programme on Occupational Safety, Health and the Environment: Summary description, 1997.

33. Recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases: An ILO code of practice, 1996.

34. Health impact of occupational risks in the informal sector in Zimbabwe, by Dr. R. Loewenson (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

35. Guidelines on ergonomics in agriculture, by V. Forastieri (draft).

36. Technical and ethical guidelines for workers' health surveillance, 1997.

37. Report of the Meeting of Experts on Workers' Health Surveillance, Geneva, 2-9 September, 1997.

38. Ergonomic checkpoints: Practical and easy-to-implement solutions for improving safety, health and working conditions, 1996.

39. Draft code of practice on ambient factors in the workplace, 1997.

40. Safety guide on occupational radiation protection, by S. Niu (a joint ILO/IAEA publication), 1998.

41. "Globalization of economic relations: Implications for occupational safety and health. An international view", by A. Taqi, in Proceedings of the XIVth World Congress on Occupational Safety and Health, Madrid, 1997.

42. Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Fourth Edition) J. Stellman (ed.), Vol. I (The body, health care, management and policy, tools and approaches), Vol. II (Psychosocial and organizational factors, general hazards, the environment, accidents and safety management), Vol. III (Chemicals, industries based on biological resources, industries based on natural resources, chemical industries, manufacturing industries, textile and apparel industries, transport industries, construction, services and trade) and Vol. IV (How to use the Encyclopaedia, guide to occupations and chemicals, indexes, contents and directory) (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

43. International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs) are available on the Internet in English (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcs/icstart.html) and Japanese (http://www.nihs.go.jp/ICSC/). They are also available in English, Finnish and Swahili on the Chemical Safety CD-ROM, which can be obtained from the ILO and the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, as well as in English on the IPCS INCHEM CD-ROM, which can be obtained from the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). ICSCs are translated and published in French by the Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology of Belgium, and will be made available on the Internet in 1998. The Spanish edition is distributed by the Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo, Barcelona, Spain. German versions of ICSCs are available from the Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin, Berlin. The Chinese edition is available in the publication International Chemical Safety Cards, 1995 (ISBN 7-5025-1493-7/TQ).

44. Chemical risk assessment and occupational hygiene preventive measures in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs): A contribution to the ILO Action Programme on safety in the use of chemicals, by N. Watfa and S. Awan (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

45. Safety in the use of chemicals (for secondary schools education), by N. Watfa, S. Awan and R. Goodson (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

46. Chemical safety in Asia: Law and practice: A contribution to the ILO Action Programme on safety in the use of chemicals at work, by N. Watfa and S. Machida, 1998.

47. ILO, OECD and UNEP/FAO: Chemical safety activities: A comparative analysis: A contribution to the ILO Action Programme on safety in the use of chemicals at work, by F. Schulberg and N. Watfa, 1997.

48. Higher productivity and a better place to work: Practical ideas for owners and managers of small and medium-sized industrial enterprises: Action manual, by J. Thurman, A. Louzine and K. Kogi, first published 1988, third impression (with corrections) 1997; and Higher productivity and a better place to work: Practical ideas for owners and managers of small and medium-sized industrial enterprises: Trainers' manual, by J. Thurman, A. Louzine and K. Kogi, 1988.

49. A better place to work: Safety, health and productivity, a joint publication by the ILO and the Department of Labor and Employment, Philippines, 1996.

50. Improving working conditions in the garment industry, J.C. Hiba (ed.) (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

51. Protection of workers' personal data: An ILO code of practice, 1997.

52. Violence at work, by D. Chappell and V. di Martino (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

53. A package of training materials, consisting of: No. 1: Social security principles; No. 2: Administration of social security; No. 3: Social security financing; No. 4: Pension schemes; No. 5: Social health insurance; and Trainers' guide (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

54. Actuarial mathematics of social security pensions (forthcoming).

55. Modelling in health care finance (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

56. The International Financial and Actuarial Service of the International Labour Office (ILO Facts): A brief portrait, 1997.

57. The ILO Social Budget Model, 1996.

58. The ILO Pension Model: A technical guide (latest draft version, 1997).

59. The cost of social security: Fourteenth international inquiry, 1987-1989 (Comparative tables); Le coût de la sécurité sociale: Quatorzième enquête internationale 1987-1989 (Tableaux comparatifs); El costo de la seguridad social: Decimocuarta encuesta internacional, 1987-1989 (Cuadros comparativos), 1996.

60. Recent developments in financing social security in Latin America, by M. Nitsch and H. Schwarzer, Issues in Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 1, 1996; Effective retirement age and duration of retirement in the industrial countries between 1950 and 1990, by D. Latulippe, Issues in Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 2, 1996; Are there better ways to cut and share the cake? The European Welfare States at the crossroads, by M.Cichon, Issues in Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 3, 1997; Protecting retirement incomes: Options for reform, Studies and Research Series No. 37, 1996; An operational framework for pension reform: Comprehensive quantitative modelling for a better pension strategy, by D. Latulippe, 1997; and the following articles: "Regular adjustments of financial parameters of social protection systems in volatile inflationary environments", by A.Drouin and W. Scholz (forthcoming in International Social Security Review); and "Can Europe afford the future financing of the welfare states?", by M. Cichon, in Social protection in Europe: Facing up to changes and challenges, A.Bosco and M. Hutsebant (eds.), European Trade Union Institute, Brussels, 1997.

61. Basic social security for all: Case studies of developing countries, W. van Ginneken (ed.) (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

62. Seguridad social para los trabajadores informales en Colombia, E. Hernández and W. van Ginneken (eds.), 1997 (mimeographed).

63. Social security for all Indians, W. van Ginneken (ed.), New Delhi, Oxford University Press (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

64. Social security for the informal sector: Investigating the feasibility of pilot projects in Benin, India, El Salvador and Tanzania, W. van Ginneken (ed.), Issues in Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 5, 1997.

65. Bibliography on social security for the informal sector, by A. Jesse and W. van Ginneken (forthcoming) [subsequently published].

66. Social security for the informal sector: Issues, options and tasks ahead, by W. van Ginneken, Working Paper for the Interdepartmental Project on the Urban Informal Sector, 1996. 


Updated by VC. Approved by RH. Last update: 26 January 2000.

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